A Hole in the Head

2005-11-09T08:40:00.000-05:00

1970: 27-year old Amanda Feilding put on a white robe, cut her hair away from her forehead and calmly drilled a hole through her skull. She had been searching for four years for a qualified surgeon who would agree to perform the procedure for her. It's hardly surprising that no one wanted to do it. Finally, she decided to trepan herself.

She used a dentist's electric drill, which was operated by a foot pedal. Practicing on an old skull before drilling into her own. Dark glasses were taped to her eyes in order to keep out the blood. An incision was made with a scalpel, and the drill dipped into water in order to cool it down. That day, she lost almost a liter of blood, and "it seemed to take an amazingly long time". Unbelievably enough, she was pleased with the result. She claims, "Over the next four hours I noticed myself rising up with a feeling of elation and relaxation. I went out and had steak for supper, then I went to a party."

Later, she joined the Dutch starter of the trepanation movement Bart Hughes and her companion Joseph Mellen in an effort to spread the "benefits". She ran for British parliment twice.. advocating trepanation as part of the National Health plan to be available to every adult who wanted it.

Need it be mentioned that Feilding, Mellen, and Hughes all experimented with LSD and other drugs in their search for "enlightenment"?

Trepanation.. Magic or Medicine?

2005-11-09T08:12:00.000-05:00

Ever since archaeologists discovered signs of historical trepanation, there has been a debate over the purpose of these holes in skulls. Biological anthropologist John Verano of Tulane University in New Orleans asks, "Was it done for medical reasons or was it something primitive, done for illogical reasons?" For many people, it's easier to believe that these "primitive savages" did it to shoo out demons rather than as actual intelligent surgery.

Through ten years of investigation and skull sampling, Verano believes that the ancient techniques of trepanation were performed as life-saving operations to remove shattered bone and pooling blood from injured skulls.

Anthropologists have unearthed nearly a thousand trepanned skulls in the Andean region of Peru. Verano examined 650 of them, and by matching improvements in surgical procedures with increases in the survival rate of patients, he has shown a clear connection between head injuries and trepanation.

The most successful trepanneres were the Incas. History of trepanation began in AD 900, but by AD 1350, they had become so experienced that trepanation became almost a form of art. Verano describes, "In some cases the surgeons' skills were very impressive. They made nice round holes and there was good long-term healing. The Incas were doing better surgery than many later surgeons in Europe".

The Anti-Trepanation Conspiracy

2005-11-08T22:50:00.000-05:00

Modern trepanation advocates have had a major problem in their advertising to others. There is no scientific proof that trepanation has any serious beneficial result, and the scientific community seems unimpressed by the procedure’s results. Surely this would stop a person from undergoing a potentially life-threatening elective operation… unless there was some sort of conspiracy behind it! Alas, several trepanation websites have pages or sections claiming that the medical community rejects trepanation as a legitimate medical procedure because of a massive conspiracy. As Trepanationguide.com says, “[Doctors] fear that to practice trepanation would demean their professional status.” ITAG repeats the mantra by saying, “[Doctors] can't deviate from the accepted standards without getting a lot of flak. There have been no studies on the effect of trepanation in humans conducted by universities or hospitals in the so-called western world.” This would seem perfectly logical, but we live in an age where countless medical treatments considered to be superstitious or just plain illogical are now being tested legitimately by the scientific community.

In the End - You're Psycho!

2005-11-08T21:45:00.000-05:00

The onslaught of Peter Halvorson's website ITAG, the International Trepanning Advocacy Group, its message that trepanation, an unorthodox medical practice, truly has medical value, sparked controversy from doctors across the board. Whenever a novel procedure especially with inconclusive studies and research that claims it can benefit the patient in some way surfaces, people become skeptical of it. Ray Ybarra's testimony (see The Secret Life of ... Ray Ybarra) tries to mention some of the positive benefits of trepanation seemed to be reiterated throughout ITAG's website.

Indeed, skeptics soon began to criticize the theory proposed on Halvorson's ITAG website. Numerous doctors openly derided Halvorson's conclusions, deeming they were premature or pseudoscience. Dr. William Landau, the head of neurology department at Washington University in St. Louis, commented in The Hole Story that "there is no scientific basis for this at all. It's quackery." The doctor worked with neurological department since the 1950s, and in all his experiences, repudiates the benefits of trepanation.

Another doctor also commented in the Hole Story. Dr. Robert Daroff's comments were quite direct and colloquial: "Horseshit...Absolute, unequivocal bullshit." Dr. Daroff too has an authoritative position in neurology. According to his biography, he is the Interim Vice Dean for Education and Academic Affairs, and Professor of Neurology, at the Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine. Perhaps, more impressive is that he is also is the president of the American Neurological Association and president of the American Headache Society and still used such blatant language to describe trepanation.

There are a few people would find trepanation as a miracle that cured a condition. For most however, it seems to be illogical or at most a placebo effect. In the end, the overwhelming criticism against trepanning may be the reason why trepanation is not as common as plastic surgery and the like.

Tools of the Trade

2005-11-08T21:02:00.000-05:00

Though based on today's standards, the equipment used to perform trepanation seems to be simplistic and dated in regards to modern surgical tools. After some intricate surgeries we hear of today such as bypass surgery and laser eye treatments, one could barely believe that trepanation only takes a handful of equipment, most of which can be easily attained from a hardware store. With a drill (a power drill will do fine), drill bits, a scalpel, and a small brush are adequate to perform such a procedure. According to Amazon.com, the entire supplies listed would total about $100. Not bad considering that even surgery covered by insurance nowadays cost over $1000. It is no wonder then that some people took advantage of a really inexpensive procedure believed to improve the function of the brain.

Englishman Joseph Mellen was one such man performing this procedure on himself. In his book Bore Hole, he writes, "After some time there was an ominous sounding schlurp and the sound of bubbling. I drew the trepan out and the gurgling continued. It sounded like air bubbles running under the skull as they were pressed out. I looked at the trepan and there was a bit of bone in it. At last!" Mellen used a mirror and bored a hole into his skull with a drill. The sensation depicted is hard to imagine, and the fact that he could bare the image of himself with a drill in his head in truly astonishing. Even more amazing is that Mellen must have performed one of the few self-surgeries in the history of the world that can be considered an absolute success.

Peter Halvorson's Story

2005-11-08T19:39:00.000-05:00

In a small room in Holland in 1972, a man by the name of Peter Halvorson took a scalpel, four drill bits, and an electric power drill [which was controlled by his foot] to his head. For one reason or another, he hoped that this self-inflicted incision in his skull would alleviate his depression. Today, he carries a dent on his forehead that measures three-eighths of an inch wide.

Halvorson bolsters his pro-trepanation argument with various medical terms such as "pulsation", "cerebral metabolism", and "brainbloodvolume". Never mind that that last term was coined by a "Doctor" Hughes who coincidentally, also managed to fail his doctorate exams twice.

Halvorson also claims that this procedure gave him "more energy, more focus, more drive". Now, he presides over the International Trepanation Advocacy Group [ITAG] which vouches for further medical research into the supposed "benefits" of trepanation.

The Doctor Speaks for Himself

2005-11-04T09:22:00.000-05:00

The famous interview of self-trepanner Dr. Bart Hughes, questioned by Joe Mellen, offers some interesting enlightenment of Hughes' mind.

According to Hughes, at age eleven, he had twenty-five girlfriends, fifty snakes, lizards, toads, frogs, newts, etc. By the time he was eighteen, he had three hundred and eighty-five of the said reptiles. First sign of a rather quirky individual?

Upon leaving school, Hughes started on his medical studies. As a child, he wanted to study biology. As he grew older, that idea narrowed down to a specialization in psychiatry and psychoanalysis. In 1962, he took the main part of the doctorate exam [psychiatry, neurology, and pharmacology] and passed. The second part, [obstetrics and surgery] he failed twice.

During this time of study, Hughes experimented with various drugs--mainly LSD. He recalls visions of devils, pigs, and chimpanzees; despite the fear that came with these visual distortions, he enjoyed the experience. Upon failing his doctorate exam, he took a vacation to Ibiza to experiment with pot. He claims that all the books he had read told him that pot was a non-toxic substance. Naturally, he smoked as much as he could. It is during these moments of "high" that he reached his "epiphany" that the key to permanent euphoria was a hole in his head.

He tried in vain for two years to find a doctor who would perform the operation on him, and in the end, took a drill to his own head. Surgery complete, he began to preach his ideology and now enourages every adult to consider drilling a hole in his or her head.

Is this man a true prophet of alternative medicine? Or his he simply a deluded man whose mind was further exacerbated by the use of drugs? Decide for yourselves.

The Secret to the Life of ... Ray Ybarra

2005-11-03T19:26:00.000-05:00

Scandals have always intrigued someone in this world. Consider that every absurd infomercial on television have at least one customer. Likewise, people like our friend Ray Ybarra belong to this elite group of gullible people.

Ray Ybarra, a resident of Anthony, New Mexico (near El Paso, TX), had a severe case on insomnia, a case of horrible nightmares, and overall lack of pleasure in his life. He turned to trepanation as a treatment for his problems. He wrote on the ITAG's website:
"I can, however, attest to some heavy-duty insomnia for the last 20+ yrs. My interest in trepanation is not so much what it can do for my insomnia, but about the fabulous other things I've heard it can do."

The man writes about the myths he heard about trepanation, myths that he accepted to be true. He claimed it could reverse the effects on insomnia and eliminate his nightmares. According to WebMD, insomnia is a difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. The website suggested that the cause may be from other prevalent conditions depression and anxiety. Likewise, simple lifestyle changes such as the amount of time devoted to sleep or increasing activity during the day can also solve the problem. If worse comes to worse, there are clinically proven prescription drugs to induce sleep. Notice however, trepanation is not exactly one of those suggested treatments.

Mind all the effective treatments of insomnia, Ray Ybarra chose trepanation because of myths he heard from the ITAG website. He recalls that trepanning himself would "maybe even [cause] some mystic qualities [to] arise from what lies dormant in the tightly sealed vastness of my brain (just a little drama there folks). I do remember back to the age of fourteen and to the dreams I had then as a kid. I always thought nothing could stop me. I still believe that I'm unstoppable and in all honesty my life has been telling me something else. So I want to be trepanned to regain my youthful vitality and optimism." His intent is very charming, an excellent plot for a movie- a 40-year-old man trying to regain his childhood. Unfortunately, this is not a movie nor will it ever be because it is downright obscure.

Ybarra concludes his short testimony by desperately calling out to the internet community for two more volunteers for the procedure. The clinic in Mexico only schedules trepanations for groups of four or more.

More Confusion about Cerebrospinal Fluid

2005-11-01T22:35:00.000-05:00

The Frequently Asked Question page of the International Trepanation Advocacy group has even more to say on the topic of the relation of changes in cerebrospinal fluid to mental wellness. Their explanation leaves much to be explained. Essentially, ITAG claims that as a person ages, cerebrospinal fluid (which they refer to as “brain water” on this web site) circulates less, resulting in decreased brain function. One paragraph in particular discusses “excess, stagnant, toxic brain water” as the reason why trepanation is an effective medical procedure. Every one of these words is somewhat misleading. There is no such thing as excess CSF in the average individual. To make a case otherwise, ITAG refers to a study about the draining of CSF in Alzheimer’s sufferers. This study however, was run by the company making the device, and concluded that there was no firm evidence that there was any change from the control group. Additionally, CSF is not stagnant at all; the body circulates new CSF several times a day!
What does all this have to do with increased well-being? There is no evidence to support ITAG’s theories. In fact, the author of the FAQ page even states, “I haven't had much luck in getting the doctors I know to think beyond endorphins to the lowering of the CSF volume as being the root of [a mental high].” This makes the reader wonder why the author of the article, who has no medical school experience, should know more about the topic than multiple doctors.

Trepanning in Antiquity

2005-10-27T10:37:00.000-04:00

"Of these modes of fracture, the following require trepanning: the contusion, whether the bone be laid bare or not; and the fissure, whether apparent or not. And if, when an indentation (hedra) by a weapon takes place in a bone it be attended with fracture and contusion, and even if contusion alone, without fracture, be combined with the indentation, it requires trepanning. A bone depressed from position rarely requires trepanning; and those which are most pressed and broken require trepanning the least; neither does an indentation (hedra) without fracture and contusion require trepanning; nor does a notch, provided it is large and wide; for a notch and a hedra are the same."

Above is an excerpt from Hippocrates’s medical journal, "On the Injuries of the Head", detailing the procedure in treating an injury to the head. Dated at approximately 400 BC, the entire document describes the cranium, as Hippocrates called the head, its structure, inner workings, and susceptibility to injury. It is no surprise however that the Greek culture was intrigued by trepanation, a relatively ancient procedure well before the Greeks. Many Stone Age civilizations have already performed the surgery on their people all for different reasons, whether medicinal or ritual.

Back in classical times, the trepanation was used as a treatment to a head injury. Hippocrates is very specific on the injury, one from a club. And such injury would require trepanning, even if the skull was not fractured. As long as there is a noticeable indentation n the head then the victim should have a trepanation. Likewise Hippocrates logs a certain number of situations that are not severe enough to be treated in this manner. An indentation, also called a hedra, does not necessary have to be treated by trepanning. Another important discernment that Hippocrates points out is that the skull has strong points and weak points. Depending on the location of the injury to the skull and the size of the area, trepanation may or may not be necessary. Though today trepanation seems absurd and unreasonable, the practice was quite catholic in its usage to treat head wounds.

Trepanation as a Cure for Mental Disorders

2005-10-26T22:49:00.000-04:00

According to ITAG, trepanation restores the brainbloodvolume (always written as one word and abbreviated as BBV) of the subject back to childhood levels. This, according to “experts” allows the Freudian ego to return to the state at which it was originally “installed.” The return of BBV to childhood levels then can help those suffering from depression or even schizophrenia. Mr. Haverson, the director of ITAG concludes that trepanation would have a beneficial effect on anybody, but psychotics would see the largest difference.

Not surprisingly, Mr. Haverson arrives at his conclusion because of a few misunderstandings. Trepanation advocates measure brainbloodvolume (the amount of blood in the brain’s capillaries) by the amount of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pushed out of the brain. This is where Mr. Haverson’s confusion begins. CSF does not regulate the amount of blood in the capillaries; it cushions the brain and spinal cord inside their respective bony shells. The relationship between CSF and mental disorders is not one of the cerebrospinal fluid volume or pressure. Doctors often take CSF samples in order to diagnose neurological problems, but the samples are used to determine the concentrations of cells, glucose and protein. These tests are also generally used to diagnose infections, not chemical imbalances like depression. True, there have been studies, linking chemical changes in CSF to autism. But even in this case, trepanation would still prove unhelpful, because a hole in the head could not change the cerebrospinal fluid’s chemical composition. That, of course, does not include a possible chemical change brought on by a trepanation-related infection.

The Stone Operation

2005-10-21T22:52:00.000-04:00

A 16th century painting by Hieronymous Bosch titled “The Stone Operation” lends some insight into the cultural significance of trepanation. In it, a gray-haired man is strapped to a chair, with a practitioner of trepanation making an incision and removing something from a hole in the man’s skull. The surgeon has a funnel on his head, which symbolizes a gap in wisdom. The doctor seems to be removing what is either a stone or a tulip, which both represent ignorance. The caption of this painting has been translated as “Master, dig out the stones of folly, my name is ‘castrated daschund’”.

Another way to interpret this painting claims that trepanation did not actually exist, but rather, that it was a result of medical and spiritual folklore. In this case, the funnel symbolizes lack of knowledge in the medical community and the “outdated” belief in religion. The object being removed is now a lotus, which symbolizes the human spirit. Putting all these together gives “an elderly man involuntarily tied to the chair while the medical and religious figures collude to take away his spirit."

The Trepanation of Joseph Mellen

2005-10-21T11:49:00.000-04:00

Joseph Mellen met Bart Huges in 1965 in Ibiza, Spain. He became convinced by Huges philosophy, and started documenting the life of the med school-dropout, eventually resulting in the book,“Bore Hole”, and the only interview of Bart Huges. When Huges traveled to Amsterdam with Amanda Fielding, a painter and mutual friend, Mellen decided to perform the operation himself. He visited a medical supply store, and found a manual auger-style device that was cheaper, and he thought more precise than a drill. The instrument had a retractable metal spike surrounded by a ring of spinning saw teeth. The spike was designed so that it would hold the device steady until the saw teeth caught, and then retract for the rest of the trepanation. He had no medical experience, and broke the needles for the local aesthetic. He then took LSD and started the trepanation, but was unable to get the spike to stick. At this point, Mellen decided he may need extra help, and called for Amanda Fielding. With Fielding operating the trepan, the saw teeth caught, but just before breaking through, Mellen fainted. He was rushed to the hospital, where doctors told him that he was lucky to be alive, and had he drilled an inch further, he would have died. A few months later, Mellen tried again. He used the same device, and started from the groove in his scull. He managed to break through and remove the skull, finally achieving what he considered to be an enlightened state.

A Square in the Head

2005-10-21T10:00:00.000-04:00

The discussion of ancient cultures that practiced the art of penetrating the skull as a means to relieve pressure on the head may leave one questioning the method these people used to perform the surgery. However, interestingly enough our predecessors were quite precise and competent in performing such surgeries.

One of the earlier civilizations to use trepanation, the Incas of Peru, used trepanation not only for therapy, but as a means to purge the evil spirits out of one's body. The Incan surgeon would hold "the patient's head... tightly between the surgeon's knees---the former reclining and the latter sitting." The surgeon would create a one inch incision in the patient's scalp to gain access to the skull. He used flint or hardened copper with sharp edges to file down the bone in the shape of a square. However, the Incan's amazingly perfected the procedure to prevent an abrupt piercing as the surgeon neared the edge of the brain. Incans shaped their tools "by the increasing thickness of the instrument away from its cutting edge" so that if part of the flint were to penetrate the skull, the instrument would be wedged in the small incision of the bone.

The Incas were unconventional because they carved square holes rather than modern trepanations that drill circles. As the surgeon carved the patient's skull he would mark off right angles. When the skull was sufficiently penetrated the square fragment would be removed. Upon successfully completing the surgery, the cavity would be either covered with a metal plate or in some instances a lead shell. (Lead poisoning was probably common in Peru.) Now the question that remains is which shape a square or a circle provides the most benefits?

"The Good Doctor"

2005-10-14T09:23:00.000-04:00

The Dutch doctor Bart Hughes founded the trepanation movement in 1962. His theory? That "one's state and degree of consciousness are related to the volume of blood in te brain." He believed that evolution had brought about numerous benefits to humans, but at the same time, reduced human consciousness -- since gravity apparently limited the flow of blood to the brain. Some ways to 'treat' this limitation include standing on one's head, quickly moving from hot water to cold, or drug usage. But all of these methods are only temporary. The real solution, according to Dr. Hughes, was to imitate the skulls of babies.

Babies are born with their skulls unsealed, but as they grow into adulthood, bone covers up the brain completely. Dr. Hughes felt that this was the reason adults lost touch with "the dreams, imagination and intense perceptions of the child". In order to "liberate" his brain, he drilled a hole into his skull.

From that day on, he began to preach trepanation has a healthy way to recover the state of consciousness and increased volume of blood that most adults apparently lack.

The medical and legal authorities, with very good reason, put him into an insane asylum in response.

Coconut on the Brains

2005-10-13T22:10:00.000-04:00

Trepanation truly was a global practice at one point or another throughout the history of the world. Thus, it is no wonder that even isolated Pacific Islands were subject to the ancient practice of trepanning.

The Polynesian and Melanesian archipelagoes to name a few are littered with trepanned skulls attesting to the popularity of the procedure among the Pacific cultures. The earliest account of such cultural remedies appeared in William Ellis's journal giving some insight to the purpose of the procedure in the Pacific Islander culture. William Ellis was an interesting individual acting as a bridge between the local cultures and the rest of the world. In fact, he ran the first printing press in Tahiti and developed a written translation for Hawaiian language. Most of his logs contain precious information about the cultural purpose of trepanation.

While on the Society Islands, Ellis noted that natives used a rudimentary form of trepanning to repair fractures inflicted during battles. This process technically is not trepanning when a piece of the skull is removed but hypothetically the Tahitians used this surgical procedure for mending an injury. The Tahitians specifically replaced removed fractures parts of the skull replacing it surprisingly enough a coconut. (It is uncertain in Ellis's reports whether the islanders inserted the coconut shell or used it as a primitive bandage.) Coconut shell was probably chosen "because of its hardness...its natural resemblance to the cranial vault-hard material indented with vein-like impressions," and its availability on the tropical islands. Who could have guessed that in a part of the world renowned its tropical climate, the coconut had other purposes that just pina coladas?

A Man Who Was Not So Thrilled With His Trepanation

2005-10-13T19:28:00.000-04:00

Why do trepanned people believe that they have reached a new level of enlightenment? An interview of a trepanned man by bmezine.com (a site focused on tattoos, body piercings, and other forms of body art) revealed that the placebo effect could be creating the effects that trepanation patients discuss. In the interview, an anonymous man discusses his “research” on trepanation, the procedure, and his condition over the next month. The man was an artist and musician who had heard about trepanation from his friend. He was a heavy marijuana user, and wanted to get a “permanent high.” The friends that he drafted for surgeons had some previous experience in complex piercings and aesthetic implants beneath the skin, but no true medical experience. The procedure went well, partially thanks to the extra effort taken to disinfect the tools used, and afterward, the man reported that he had a longer attention span, and could focus on multiple tasks at once. Less than a month later, however, he reported that he was not noticing much of a difference at all in his mental capacity. He concluded that he actually felt no change, but wanted the trepanation to be a success so badly that he convinced himself that it was working. The only lasting effects, he said, were “flashes of heat” to different parts of his head, and a lack of headaches when he ate cold food. Overall, he felt that the most beneficial part of the trepanation was the joy he felt to still be alive after the operation ended.

A Walk Through the History of Trepanation

2005-10-07T09:33:00.000-04:00

Since 3000 BC, trepanation has been part of history. In the Danube basin, archaeologists have found countless skulls with holes in them. Hundreds more have been unearthed in Denmark, Sweden, Poland, France, Spain, and the British Isles. It has also been reported that Soviet archaeologists have found crania with trepanation holes of 0.6-0.7 inches in diameter. These date to the Middle Stone Age, which raises the history of trepanation to an age of almost 12,000 years. How can it be that so many people, from so long ago, have sought “health” by boring holes into their heads?

In the eighteenth century, the most famous Swedish surgeon of the time was Olaf af Acrel, a physician at the Serphim Hospital. He said that trepanation “intended to release what has forced its way out of the bloodvessels, or to lift up and remove what, having been forced in, causes meningitis.” It is rather unsettling to note that this man, who believed drilling a hole in his patient’s skulls would cure them of brain membrane irritation, was the same man who pretty much governed medicine for Sweden.

Today, trepanation is usually performed to alleviate pressure on the brain that usually results from internal bleeding from head wounds. In this case, and in a few others such as brain hemorrhages caused by cerebral ulcers, the operation is somewhat medically justified. Some people, such as the famous Amanda Feilding, do it to achieve almost a “mental high”. They claim that they feel more clearheaded and healthier post-“surgery”. Unfortunately, trepanation has been ingrained in human history.

How to get Trepanned Today

2005-10-05T15:09:00.000-04:00

Thanks to the creation of the internet, trepanation can present itself as professionally as a legitimate medical procedure. A visit to the web site of ITAG- The International Trepanation Advocacy Group shows visitors, with professional-looking videos and attractive graphs, how logical having a hole drilled in your head can be. They explain that thanks to the work of the supporters of ITAG, patients can have their heads drilled by professional surgeons in an outpatient facility in Monterey, Mexico.

Though the facility looks like a significant improvement over an electric drill, it leaves a great deal to be desired. There is no information on the past accomplishments of the surgeons, and the facility does not appear to have the ability to treat possible complications from the surgery (they instead include a temporary insurance policy as part of the package). The "ITAG Clinic" does not preform these procedures regularly; you need to "Spark a Trepanning Event" by convincing two other people to come to Mexico with you. Once in Monterey, candidates must undergo a special procedure called engramming. From the looks of the description, candidates must read information from a coloring book out loud ten times or more with special music in the background. The legal forms required for the procedure ask a candidate to sign that they "do not consider [themselves] to have been 'indoctrinated' or 'brainwashed.'" Isn't part of the point of being brainwashed that you do not know it?

The total cost for the procedure is $3600, not including hotel, medical insurance for possible complications, food, travel, personal costs and "long term studies". Patients willing to do participate in interviews and advertising for the ITAG may participate in the "study" for a discounted $2400. Patients are also charged an additional sum to get their "before" and "after" MRI images on CD-ROM. So far, 9 people have participated in the "study".

What's With Trepanation

2005-10-03T14:45:00.000-04:00

By definition, trepanation is an ancient form of surgery for improving the function of one's brain. According to Kallich, trepanation is "the practice of drilling, scraping or in any other way creating a small hole in the skull down to, but not through, the dura mater, or the thick, tough membrane that contains the brain." Peter Halvorson, an American proponent of trepanning, performed the rather simple surgery himself in 1972. The Washington Post wrote that in 1972, Halvorson used anesthetic, a scalpel, a set of four drills, and an electric drill to enlighten his thought process. Kallich's report suggests that the early trepanations were used to cure mental disorders. After 1962 however, Bart Hughes published "The Mechanism of Brainbloodvolume" claiming that trepanation can actually " in which he claimed that a "permanent increase in brainbloodvolume (BBV)" results in "greater mental acuity and stamina." Furthermore he attributed age to a lose of mental capacity because the skull hardens as it ages. Thus by protruding the skull, the BBV can be maintained in the capillaries of the brain for greater mental clarity.